But the president faced determined opposition everywhere he turned, both from Jackson's backers and Calhoun, who filled Senate committees with men who did not support the administration's policies. Among other things, Adams called for the creation of a national university and a national observatory. In his first annual message to Congress (1825), he laid out an extensive program of federal spending that stretched even the most liberal definition of internal improvements. Few candidates were as qualified as John Quincy Adams to be president, yet few presidents have had such a disappointing term. Although there is no firm evidence to support the charge, it became an issue that hounded Adams during his presidency and was raised by Jackson himself during the next presidential campaign. When Adams appointed Clay his secretary of state, Jackson's supporters angrily charged that a “ corrupt bargain” had been made between the two men. Thirteen of the twenty‐one states voted for Adams, and he became president. With no chance of winning himself, Clay threw his support to Adams, who shared his nationalist views. Because Jackson did not receive a majority in the Electoral College, the election was decided by the House of Representatives, where Speaker Clay exercised considerable political influence. Jackson received 43 percent of the popular vote compared to Adams's 31 percent, and he won 99 electoral votes to Adams's 84. Calhoun removed himself from the race, settling for another terra as vice president and making plans for another run at the presidency in 1828 or 1832. Although a paralyzing stroke removed him from an active role in the campaign, he received almost as many votes as Clay.
Outside the cabinet, Speaker of the House Henry Clay stood for his “American System,” and the military hero Andrew Jackson, the lone political outsider, championed western ideas. Calhoun and Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford contended for the role of spokesperson for the South, while Secretary of State John Quincy Adams promoted the interests of New England. Monroe's cabinet included no fewer than three men with presidential ambitions, each representing sectional interests. Although Republicans dominated national politics, the party was breaking apart internally. The Era of Good Feelings came to an end with the presidential election of 1824. In 1826, the provisions of the Maryland constitution that barred Jews from practicing law and holding public office were removed. By 1832, almost all the states (South Carolina was the sole exception) shifted the selection of members of the Electoral College from their legislature directly to the voters. Furthermore, many political offices became elective rather than appointive, making office holders more accountable to the public. A ballot printed by the government, the so‐called Australian ballot, was not introduced until the late nineteenth century. Printed ballots gave the voter a more independent voice, even though the first ballots were published by the political parties themselves. The absence of a secret, written ballot allowed intimidation few would vote against a particular candidate when the room was crowded with his supporters. Until the 1820s, a man voted by going to his precinct's voting place and orally stating his choices. The method of voting also began to change. Measuring voter turnout before the presidential election of 1824 is impossible because only electoral votes were counted, but in the 1824 presidential election, 355,000 popular votes were cast, and the number more than tripled-to more than 1.1 million-just four years later, in large part due to the end of property requirements. These developments had a dramatic effect on national elections. All states admitted to the Union after 1815 adopted white male suffrage, and between 18, others abolished the property and tax qualifications for voting.
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Grant Administration Reconstruction EndsĮven while states were moving toward denying free blacks the right to vote, the franchise was expanding for white men.Resistance to and the Defense of Slavery.Antebellum America: Recreation, Leisure.Economic Growth and Development 1815–1860.Chesapeake Colonies: Virginia, Maryland.Seventeenth Century Colonial Settlements.Portuguese Explorations and West Africa.